The history of migration processes in Central Asia.

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Ministry of Higher Education Science and
Innovation of the Republic of Uzbekistan,
Samarkand State University named after Sharof
Rashidov, Master of History degree .
COURSE WORK
Science : The history of migration processes in 
Central Asia.
Topic:  The Socio-economic Impacts of 
Emigration from Uzbekistan .
Student:  Suyarov Makhmudjon.
Teacher:  prof. Nurulla-xodjayeva Nargis.
Samarkand-2023
2 Content
Introduction
I.   Emigration   methods,   factors       and   its   effects   on   brain
drain condition
1.1  Emigration Patterns and Drivers 
1.2. Brain Drain and Human Capital
II. Influence of emigration at state economic growth and its
societal effect
2.1. Remittances and Economic Development:
2.2.  Social and Cultural Impacts.
Conclusion
References
3 Introduction
Emigration, the act of leaving one's country to settle permanently in another,
has become a significant phenomenon in Uzbekistan. Over the years, an increasing
number   of   individuals   have   chosen   to   emigrate,   seeking   better   economic
opportunities 1
  and   improved   living   standards 2
.   This   course   work   aims   to   explore
the socio-economic impacts of emigration from Uzbekistan, shedding light on the
various factors that contribute to this trend and analyzing its consequences on both
the individuals and the country as a whole.   Between 2000 and 2020, more than 1
million people emigrated from Uzbekistan. The number of emigrants was 11 times
higher   than   the   number   of   those   who   immigrated   to   Uzbekistan.   Statistics   show
that   the   number   of   emigrants   from   Uzbekistan   (1,107,584   people)   is   11   times
higher   than   the   number   of   immigrants   (99,341   people).   There   are     socio-
economic  consequences  of migration  and remittance decisions of  the
Uzbek households. We first draw a portrait of a typical migrant worker,
paying special attention to the motives for migration and the skills that
the   migrants   possess.   We   trace   the   portrait   of   the   typical   migrant
worker   to   see   the   changes   in   migration   profile   over   time.   We   also
investigate   the   impact   of   migration   and   remittances   on   livelihoods   of
migrant-sending   families.   Our   results   indicate   that   financial
constraints,   especially   on   non-food   and   health   expenditures,   act   as   a
push-factor for migration in Uzbekistan.
1
  K.A.Bondarenko   .   Labor  Migration  from  Uzbekistan:   a  family and  community  promoted  Big  Bang    //   Regional
Research of Russia,  Vol. 11, No. 2. – Moscow .: published in Prostranstvennaya Ekonomika, 2020. P-275.
2
  Juraev   A.   R.   Doctoral   Thesis.   Labor   Migration   from   Uzbekistan:   Social   and   Economic   Impacts   on   Local
Development.   Doctoral   Programme  in  Local   Development  and   Global  Dynamics,   University  of  Trento   School  of
Social Sciences, 202.  p-170.
4 I.  Emigration methods, factors   and its effects on brain drain condition
1.1 Emigration Patterns and Drivers 
This   section   will   search   into   the   reasons   behind   the   emigration   from
Uzbekistan,   examining   the   push 1
  and   pull   factors   that   influence   individuals'
decisions   to   leave   their   homeland.   Factors   such   as   economic  disparities,   political
instability,   lack   of   job   prospects,   and   limited   access   to   social   services   will   be
discussed. Additionally, the role of family reunification, educational opportunities,
and global migration networks will be explored.
After   independence   migration   has   become   one   of   the   important
characteristics   of   social   and   economic   development   in   Uzbekistan.   Beginning   of
this   process   first   of   all   was   movement   of   non-Uzbek   nationals   (especially
Russians, Ukrains, Belorussians, etc) from Uzbekistan for permanent residence to
their and their parents’ homelands. According to official statistic data, only in 1992
the   number   of   people   who   emigrated   from   Uzbekistan   was   424086   or   about   3
percent of the total population of the country in that year. At the same time, from
the   beginning   of   1993,   the   number   of   people   leaving   the   country   permanently
began declining sharply. If  in 1993 the  total  number  of  people emigrated was  16
percent   less   than  it   was   1992,   within   five   years   the   indicator   declined   more   than
twice and in 1997 made only 195001. During 1997-2009 emigration dynamics kept
at the level of about 200 thousand persons per year. Analysis of the statistic data
from   different   sources   also   show   that   among   the   people   emigrating   from
Uzbekistan, the share of the people leaving to Russia was the biggest. According to
ethnic   structure   of   the   population   of   Uzbekistan,   Russians   used   to   make   up   the
biggest minority group (it is true for current situation as well) and accordingly we
can   suppose   that   among   the   people   who   left   to   the   Russian   Federation   during
1990s Russian minorities were the majority of this group. 
1
  Anannya Chakraborty, Prof. SK Acharya and Chethana.K.   The Push Factors of Migration: An Empirical Study //
International   Conference   on     Agriculture   and   Allied   Sciences:   The   Productivity,   Food   Security   and   Ecology.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/338178046        , 2019. P-127.
5 Another   big   emigration   outflow   from   Uzbekistan   was   distributed   among
Central Asian states, and from total emigration during 1991-2008, these countries
had  about   20   percent   share.   Among  all   these   countries   Kazakhstan   was   the  most
preferred   by   the   migrants   based   on   all   indicators 1
.   Recent   emigration   from
Uzbekistan   to   Kazakhstan   almost   doubled   in   comparison   to   the   beginning   of
1990s, and its share in total emigration increased from 8.9 percent in 1991 to 25.2
percent   in   2001   and   in   recent   years   it   is   reaching   35-40   percent,   which   shows
evidence of changing emigration directions. As we saw above, emigration of non-
Uzbek   nationals   which   began   with   high   numbers   after   1991   continued   slowing
down   its   dynamics,   while   number   of   people   going   abroad   for   business   or
temporary work purposes began rising. 
From   the   beginning   of   2000,   the   new   stage   in   these   migration   processes
began   which   is   closely   connected   with   high   economic   growth   in   Russia   and
Kazakhstan   thanks   to   their   rich   oil   and   natural   gas   resources,   as   well   as   newly
appeared opportunities for citizens of Uzbekistan to have work experience abroad
through   official   intergovernmental   agreements.   A   lot   of   people   from   different
backgrounds and geographical areas of Uzbekistan began migrating to Russia and
Kazakhstan   to   find   a   temporary   job   in   different   sectors   of   the   economy.   This
phenomenon is connected with different push and pull factors like high number of
unregistered   unemployment,  low  level   of   real  wages,  relative  high  payment  rates
for labor in the Russian Federation and Kazakhstan, as well as a non-visa regime
for   crossing   borders   of   these   countries.   According   to   data   presented   by   the   State
Customs Committee (the only available data and only for 2008 and 2010) which is
based   on   peoples’   declarations   at   customs   check   points   about   their   purpose   of
travel,   the   number   of   people   leaving   the   country   to   work   abroad   in   2010   was
almost   702   thousand.   If   we   compare   this   number   with   2008,   we   see   that   it
increased by 6 percent 2
.
1
  Ahunov   M. ,   Kakhkharov   J.,   Parpiev   Z.,   Inna   Wolfson.   Socio-economic   consequences   of   labor   migration   in
Uzbekistan.  2015. P-4.
2
  www.stat.uz  
6   More interesting facts are provided by the gender division of these people
going to work abroad. For example according to data for 2008, the share of women
in the number of labor migrants was 14 percent and made up almost 90 thousand.
In 2010, this share increased to 15 percent  and made up 107 thousand. However,
the   percentage   change   in   the   number   of   women   traveling   for   the   purposes   of
working abroad in 2010 over 2008 was 19 percent. The above stated fact provides
confirmation   to   experts’   opinions   that,   in   the   last   years,   along   with   the   rising
number   of   men   labor   migrants,   the   number   of   women   going   to   work   abroad   is
increasing, which shows evidence of the changing role of women in the family. 
In order to shed brighter light on the issue, in this section we will use also
the results of  sociological  survey carried out  by the research center “Tahlil”. The
survey was carried out in 12 regions of the Republic of Uzbekistan, the Republic
of Karakalpakstan and Tashkent city through the method of a contact interview and
standardized questionnaire. In total, 1514 people participated in the survey. Among
the  interviewed,   men  made   up   47.2  percent   and  women   52.8  percent,   while   36.4
percent   of   them   were   inhabitants   of   cities   and   63.6   percent   lived   in   villages.
Besides this, we will closely refer to the outcomes we had from our small survey in
the   form   of   interviews   in   two   regions   (Navoiy   and   Kashkadarya)   of   Uzbekistan
during   November-December,   2009.   According   to   the   survey   by   “Tahlil”,   since
2005,   popularity   of   the   Russian   Federation   in   preferences   of   potential   migrants
among   countries   where   they   would   like   to   go   for   temporary   earnings   has   been
increasing; so, if in 2004, 29.7 percent of potential migrants were intending to go
to Russia,  then in 2006, this number  increased  to 53.7 percent. According to this
indicator Russia is ahead of all countries
For   our   research   it   is   also   very   important   to   understand   what   are   the   main
factors   influencing   the   people’s   decision   on   migration,   we   can
analyse   results   of   the   survey   by   “Tahlil”,   where   46.9   percent   of   respondents
support their decision to go abroad for temporary work with the need for earning
money   for   material   security   and   financial   support   of   their   families;   while   22.1
percent and 24.5 percent wanted to earn money as the solution of their important
7 social and everyday problems and improve material welfare respectively. Only 6.4
percent   stated   that   they   were   eager   to   collect   money   for   start-up   capital   for
business activity.
It must be underlined that during our small survey it was very interesting to
understand   whether   these   people   are   interested   in   working   in   government   or   the
private sector, or beginning their own entrepreneurial activity in spite of migration.
All   of   respondents   indicated   that   they   would   prefer   to   work   at   home   rather   than
going to foreign countries if they had opportunity to earn appropriate money. But
at   the   same   time,   they   had   doubt   about   the   possibility   of   earning   appropriate
money through working in the government sector (as well as the private sector) or
beginning a small business. Of  course the level of wages in both sectors cannot be
said   to   be   at   a   satisfactory   level   in   comparison   with   earnings   abroad.   But
respondents’   doubts   concerned   with   possibilities   of   developing   small   business   or
private entrepreneurship seems  to be unjustified as our  previous research showed
that currently in Uzbekistan there is very good institutional and legal basis for the
development of a small business and entrepreneurship. Obviously, there are some
factors   that   are   an   obstacle   for   further   development   of   small   business   and
entrepreneurship which could be optimal alternative for labor migrants. We already
examined these obstacles in our previous research. The question was:  What are the
main problems currently existing in small entrepreneurship field and what are the
main hindering factors in its further development?  
Strong  push   factors,   which  are   very  important   for   all   labor   migrants   in  the
world,   like   unemployment   and   low   wages 1
.   This   fact   already   shows   that   for   the
biggest part of migrants working abroad wasn’t a way to survive or to make ends
meet, but it is a faster way to collect money for concrete purposes like weddings,
purchase of a car or a house, which means the prevalence of pull factors over push
factors   like   higher   wages   in   taking   the   migration   decision   among   labor   migrants
from Uzbekistan. Unfortunately, minority of migrants were thinking about saving
1
  William  Seitz.   International  Migration and Household Well-Being Evidence from  Uzbekistan  // Policy Research
Working Paper 8910, 2019. P -16.
8 money   for   start-up   capital   for   future   entrepreneurship   activity   when   they   took
decision   to   go   abroad   to   work.   At   the   same   time,   they   haven’t   almost   wanted   to
earn some money abroad to establish their own small business at home It was also
interesting to look at the impact of push and pull factors from gender perspective,
as gradually the share of female labor migrants has been increasing. The analysis
of   the   survey   results   shows   that   lower   salaries   and   a   need   to   gather   money   for
wedding have been indicated by 12 and 11 respondents out of 22 female working
migrants   that   took   part   in   the   survey,   respectively.   The   age   and   marital   status   of
these respondents show that lower salaries were mostly stated as a push factor by
18-31   years   age   group   who   are   either   single   or   divorced   young   women.   While
gathering   money   for   wedding   was   one   of   main   factors   influencing   the   migration
decision   of   the   respondents   in   age   group   of   34-50,   that   are   married   middle   age
woman   with   children.   A   desire   to   collect   money   for   purchasing   a   house   or   an
apartment   incited   migration   of   the   10   female   respondents.   The   factors   like
“unemployment” and “to gather money for higher education” were indicated by 6
of   the   women   migrants   that   participated   in   the   survey.   Only   two   and   one   of   the
female respondents stated that needed start-up capital for entrepreneurship activity
and wanted to earn money to organize own small business, respectively.
Different  research  on  migration  states  that   the very  poor   do not   migrate  as
they cannot afford the travel costs, and in case their travel expenses are covered by
the mediators, they risk becoming victims of slavery. Our results on “financing the
migrant’s travel expenses” along with other above discussed answers confirm that
a   big   share   of   migrants   from   Uzbekistan   are   in   the   middle   income   range   as   67
percent   of   them   indicated   that   their   travel   to   Russia   is   financed   by   own   (family)
means. 23 percent of them borrowed the money for the ticket and other expenses
from relatives, while 10 percent of them borrowed money from friends. Only two
percent of the migrants indicated other sources as a main means for financing their
travel   expenses.     Of   course   there   are  a   considerable   number   of   very   poor   people
who   travel   to   Russia   from   Uzbekistan   in   search   of   work   without   having   any
money,   which   is   possible   due   to   agreements   with   mediators,   whom   they   have   to
9 pay back by working when they arrive in Russia. Most of these people end up in
slavery and get no pay in the end.
According   to   survey   results,   only   39   percent   of   the   migrants   had   known
where they would be working before arriving in Russia, i.e. they had an arranged
work   placement.   31   percent   of   them   replied   that   they   had   had   some   information
about their future work placement but didn’t have an exact idea. At the same time,
almost   one   third   of   all   respondents   declared   that   they   hadn’t   known   what   they
would be doing when they arrived in Russia, which means that they were in a risk
group   which   could   be   cheated,   exploited   or   left   without   any   job   It   was   also
interesting to explore how the migrants from Uzbekistan make their way to Russia.
10 1.2.  Brain Drain and Human Capital:
Emigration   often   leads   to   the   loss   of   skilled   professionals,   resulting   in   a
phenomenon  known as  brain drain.  This  section  will   analyze  the impact   of   brain
drain   on   Uzbekistan's   human   capital   development.   It   will   highlight   the   loss   of
highly   skilled   individuals,   such   as   doctors,   engineers,   and   researchers,   and   the
subsequent effects on the country's healthcare system, infrastructure development,
and   scientific   advancements.   Brain   drain   is   also   known   as   “The   human   capital
flight”.   It   can   be   simply   defined   as   the   mass   emigration   of   technically   skilled
people from  one country to another  country. Brain-drain can have many reasons,
for   example,   political   instability   of   a   nation,   lack   of   opportunities,   health   risks,
personal   conflicts   etc 1
.   They   are   introduced   by   observing   the   emigration   of   the
various   technologists,   doctors   and   scientists,   from   various   developing   countries
(including   Europe)   to   more   developed   nations   like   USA.   The   Human   flight   and
brain   drain   indicator   considers   the   economic   impact   of   human   displacement   (for
economic or political reasons) and the consequences this may have on a country’s
development.  The higher the index, the greater the human displacement
Brain   drain   (even   it   is   not   significant   in   the   current   stage)   might   cause
underdevelopment of particular social and economic sectors where skilled labor is
needed in the medium and long terms. However, big number of people who leave
to work abroad each year, and a significant share of which are turning to temporary
labor   migration   as   their   permanent   life   style,   are   already   decreasing   payments
towards the Pension Fund (as they do not  have official job in Uzbekistan and do
not  make a     contribution to the  fund). This  will  have  serious financial  problems
and   will   create   an   extra   burden   to   the   government   budget   in   the   long     term
perspective   when   these   migrants   reach   pension   age   and   will   be   paid   a   pension
according   to   the   age.   This   situation   in   turn   may   bring   us   to   a   significant   budget
deficit. 
1
  А.   Р.   Бяшарова   .,   Г.   Ш.   Карабаева   .,   Л.   М.   Ашурзода   .,   Д.   Р.   Таджиева   .,   Р.   М.   Латыпова .   Актуальные
вопросы международной миграции в Узбекистане //  Вестник Алтайской Академии Экономики и Права № 5,
2023. С -39.
11 Review   of   the   large   amount   of   research   materials   and   empirical   evidence
shows how international migration has both direct and indirect positive influences
on   the     development   of   sending   countries   through   remittances,   employment
generation( by investment of remittances), human capital generation, etc. T here is
evidence to indicate that additions to human capital may have their biggest impact
on   growth   through   technical   progress   rather   than   through   raising   worker
productivity.   Current investments on education and health of the family members
in remittance receiving families will have a positive impact on local economies in
the   form   of   improved   human   capital   in   the   medium   and   long   term   perspective.
However, there is still a huge unused potential of remittances in the form of family
savings which could give a boost to local economic growth if they were attracted
to local bank deposits and provided to local private sector as additional loans.
For that indicator, we provide data for Uzbekistan from 2007 to 2023. The
average   value   for   Uzbekistan   during   that   period   was   6.05   index   points   with   a
minimum of 4.8 index points in 2023 and a maximum of 7.1 index points in 2007.
The latest value from 2023 is 4.8 index points. For comparison, the world average
in   2023   based   on   177   countries   is   5.17   index   points.   The   COVID-19   pandemic
threatens   economies   and   has   disrupted   societies   everywhere.   To   recover,
restore, and rebuild, every country will need to lean on expertise and the very
best   of   its   human   capital.   However,   in   Central   Asia,   the   bitter   truth   is   that
systems   that   were   already   struggling   before   the   pandemic   will   suffer   more
because so many of their best and brightest have simply left. This brain drain
of the region’s human capital now poses nearly as big a problem as the virus
itself.
Once   the   pandemic   fades,   governments   hope   their   citizens   abroad   can   be
enticed home to help their native countries heal from the effects of the pandemic,
applying   their   knowledge,   skills,   networks   and   finances   to   the   problems   of
recovery.   Yet   appeals   to   altruism   and   patriotism   may   not   be   sufficient.   For
instance, the region’s largest country, Uzbekistan, is already trying to find new and
additional   appeals   to   attract   these   specialists   to   return.   There   are   two   schools   of
12 thought on this in Uzbekistan. One is that many intelligent and capable Uzbeks left
because they were not valued by the established system. A second view claims that
Uzbekistan still has many well-educated and skilled people inside the country but
their   skills   are   misapplied.   Put   bluntly,   what   remains   of   Uzbekistan’s   human
capital base is not doing the right things, or doing them in the right places 1
.
When   Shavkat   Mirziyoyev   came   to   power   and   promised   to   create   a   new
Uzbekistan   and   had   to   expand   his   patriotic   appeals,   lean   on   an   array   of   new
incentives   and   enticements,   and,   ultimately,   broaden   the   country’s   political,
economic, and intellectual  establishment.   The patriotic piece of  this appeal  is the
most   straightforward.   Proud   of   their   ancient   history,   culture,   and   scientific
heritage, Uzbeks have always shared the dream of a prosperous, truly independent
society   where   people   could   achieve   their   own   dreams   and   every   citizen   have   a
chance to thrive. In this, Uzbekistan is not unique. The ‘Uzbek dream’ has echoes
in most developing countries, including those that are considered to be fast-rising
powers, such as China and India. Like Uzbeks, millions of their citizens also live
and work  in the  more  advanced  economies  of  North America,  Europe,  Australia,
and   New   Zealand.   And   also   just   like   those   countries,   millions   of   Uzbeks   have
sought   opportunities   for   study   and   work   abroad,   settling   wherever   they   can   best
pursue their professional and economic dreams.
Both sides of Uzbekistan’s human capital debate reflect elements of the true
picture. Many talented Uzbeks have indeed emigrated in the face of a system that
has   not   known   how   to   appreciate   them.   At   the   same   time,   many   of   the   talented
Uzbeks   who   remain   are   underutilised,   underpaid,   or   undervalued.   Adham
Bekmurodov   leads   an   ambitious   government   effort,   ‘El-yurt   umidi’,   or   the
Nation’s   Hope   Foundation.   With   an   initial   state   investment   of   $75   million   at   its
launch   in   late   2018,   the   programme   envisioned   training   5,000   specialists   within
two to three years at the top schools around the world.
1
 Imomova N.  Reversing brain drain is the key to Uzbekistan’s future //  https://cabar.asia/en/reversing-brain-drain-
is-the-key-to-uzbekistan-s-future , 18.12. 2023.
13 II. Influence of emigration at state economic growth and its societal effect
2.1. Remittances and Economic Development:
Remittances, the money sent back home by emigrants, play a crucial role in
the   economic   development   of   Uzbekistan.   This   section   will   examine   the
significance   of   remittances   as   a   source   of   income  and   foreign   exchange   earnings
for the country. It will analyze the contribution of remittances to poverty reduction,
consumption   patterns,   and   investment   in   various   sectors   of   the   economy.
Furthermore,   the   challenges   and   potential   risks   associated   with   overreliance   on
remittances will be discussed.
Remittances   are   a   rather   new   phenomenon   for   Uzbekistan   which   has
appeared   after   independence   and   reached   big   amounts   after   2000.   In   the   middle
and late 90’s, inflow of remittances was especially through unofficial channels, i.e.
passing   outside   banking   or   money   transfer   systems.   Therefore,   it   was   difficult   to
calculate the amount of money brought to the country by laborers from abroad. In
recent years several  money transfer  systems  have begun operating actively in the
Uzbekistan market. Again here the absence of official and publicly available data
on   total   amount   of   incoming   remittances   forces   us   to   use   secondary   data   from
some and very rare research pieces on remittances in Uzbekistan, and carry out our
own   estimations   using   different   sources   of   data.   In   this   connection   we   try   to
analyze the dynamic of incoming remittances to Uzbekistan by dividing it into two
periods.   First   –   2002-2006,   data   for   which   was   acquired   from   the   research   of
Center   for   Economic   Research,   where   the   remittances   data   was   calculated   by
authors of the report. Second – 2007-2011, where we calculated based on official
amount   of   remittances   sent   through   money   transfer   systems   from   Russia   and
Kazakhstan.   The   dynamics  of   incoming  remittances  during  2002-2006  is   directly
connected with the slowly increasing number of labor migrants who were leaving
to work in Russia and Kazakhstan due to improved economic conditions in those
countries   and   the   rising   demand   for   a   cheaper   labor   force.   during   2002-2006
annual flow of remittances to the country increased five times, making up a total of
1365 mil. USD in 2006, which is equal to 8.2 percent of GDP of Uzbekistan (CER,
14 2007). If we refer to statistical evidence we witness that the biggest share of these
remittances are thanks to the migrants working in Russia.
Russia has the leading role, providing 78 percent of total remittances, while
Kazakhstan,   which   became   considerably   popular   among   migrants   in   last   decade,
has   only   a   5   percent   share.   This   picture   can   be   exactly   due   to   the   fact   that   big
enough share of migrants’  money from Kazakhstan is sent  home through friends,
relatives, etc. or brought by migrants personally. The reason for this is the closer
distance   to   their   homes   and   the   relatively   less   risky   chance   of   losing   money   by
migrants   while   crossing   Uzbek-Kazakh   border.   Money   flows   from   the   USA   and
Korea, both of which possess a 3 percent share. In this case, again we can say that
the number is interesting as only a few number of people can manage to go to the
USA or Korea for a job, but the issue is that migrants in these countries on average
earn   a   much   greater   amount   of   money   than   their   compatriots   in   Russia   and
Kazakhstan
In   order   to   calculate   the   dynamics   of   incoming   remittances   to   Uzbekistan
during 2007-2011, we used data from the Central Bank of the Russian Federation
and   the   National   Bank   of   Kazakhstan   on   cross-border   remittances   via   money
transfer operators, and their estimated share in total amount of remittances received
by   households   in   Uzbekistan.   The   amount   of   incoming   remittances   during   2007-
2001 was calculated based on the following logic: According to experts’ opinion,
in   the   second   half   of   2000,   outflow   of   migrants   (here   cumulative   causation   and
“migrant syndrome” seem have played crucial role) and incoming remittances had
another wave of momentum and increased sharply. Besides this, in the second half
of   2000   thanks   to   the   increased   number   of   money   transfer   operators,   and   the
decreased   price   of   transactions   through   these   operators   due   to   high   competition,
the   share   of   remittances   being   sent   through   unofficial   channels   decreased
dramatically.   Thus   according   to   experts’   estimates   about   90   percent   of   total
remittances   are   sent   from   Russia   and   Kazakhstan   and   about   10   percent   of   these
remittances come through unofficial channels.
15 Now   let’s   look   in   brief   at   what   are   main   influences   of   remittances   on   the
economy. As we know, the main impact of remittances on GDP is the rise in the
demand from side of the population in result of the increase of disposable income
In   macroeconomic   context,   interrelation   between   remittances   and   GDP   has   an
indirect character of influence. This means that remittances first raise gross income
of   the   population,   which   in   turn   forms   disposable   income.   Disposable   income
generates   demand   from   the   population   and   households.   Plus,   only   aggregate
demand forms dynamics of GDP in the short and medium periods.
Elements   of   aggregate   demand   are   current   government   expenditures,
demand for investment resources and external demand. Here it must be underlined
that the difficulty of quantitative estimation of the impact  of remittances on GDP
connected   with   the   fact   that,   besides   remittances   a   lot   of   other   factors   have   an
effect on the level of disposable income such as: an increase in wages, expansion
of   the   private   sector,   foreign   economic   activity,   etc.   as   well   as   processes   of
liberalization and reformation of the economy have a solid effect on the income of
the population. Special to Uzbekistan is that, people get part of their income from
the   sales   of   fruits   and   vegetables   grown   on   homestead   land,   while   part   of   the
population   earns   some   money   thanks   to   their   unregistered,   small   commercial
activity which doesn’t get its attraction in the income statistics of the population. In
the  research   done   by  the   Center   for   economic   Research   in  2007,   authors   tried   to
study remittances and their role in the economy of the country. 
Of course, thanks to remittances we can see the reduction of inequality and
the   rise   of   monetization   in   the   economy.   But   at   the   same   time,   we   cannot   agree
with   the   item   regarding   new   skills   and   technology   enhancing   creation   of   new
sectors,   as   most   of   the   migrants   are   working   in   such   sectors   where   they   cannot
acquire   any   new   skills   or   knowledge   which   they   could   use   at   home.   In   part
concerned with the negative impacts, authors provided more realistic picture.
The  other  half  of  respondents   was  enjoying USD  600 or   less  per  month  in
average     At   the   same   time,   48   percent   of   them   confirmed   that   they   receive   so
called “grey wages”: Directly getting cash from employer, which means that they
16 cannot   count   for   any   kind   of   holiday   or   sick   pay,   not   to   mention,   some   for   a
pension   or   compensation     in   case   of   losing   their   job.   Only   38   percent   of   all
respondents   claimed   that   they   receive   the   salary   through   payroll.   However,   six
percent lucky owners of bank accounts replied that their salaries are transferred to
bank accounts. 
As   discussed     in   previous   chapters,   the   positive   impact   of   out   labor
migration   to   origin   communities   comes   through   remittances,   new   skills,
technology   transfers   and   etc.   However   in   our   case,   this   impact   can   be   mostly
through the remittances, as the majority of labor migrants from Uzbekistan work in
low   skilled   jobs   and   there   cannot   be   any   discussion   about   new   skills   or
technologies   which   could   be   applied   further   in   development   of   localities 1
.   97
percent of our respondents stated that they send money home, where 86 percent are
regular senders. Only 3 percent of all working migrants declared that they do not
send money back home. Among the migrants who send money home, 77 percent
send it on a monthly basis. They said that they send money each month as soon as
they  get   their   salary,   as   keeping   money  with   themselves   is  risky   due   to  different
factors. They just keep a decent amount for their living and send home the rest. 13
percent of them send money every two months while only one percent sends every
three months. The biggest share or 29 percent of our respondents indicated that on
average they send  more than  USD  600 per  month, while 10 percent  was  sending
USD 500-600 every month in average. Families of the other 21 percent of migrants
were enjoying the remittances in the amount of USD 400-500 per month. However
16 percent of the respondents stated that they manage to send USD 300-400, while
the other 16 percent could send only USD 200-300 per month. There were also 9
percent of migrants who complained that they cannot send more than USD 200 in
average.
As the main purpose of our research is to analyze what kind of impacts has
out labor migration on people and sending localities in Uzbekistan, we tried to get
1
 Rakhimov M., Yokubov F.  Uzbekistan external migration: key trends and directions // Eurasian Research Journal,
Vol. 4, No. 1, 2022. P-30.
17 labor   migrants’   opinions   and   personal   evolutions   on   this   impact.   83   percent   of
migrant  workers who took part in the survey confirmed that  thanks  to their work
abroad their financial situation has improved considerably, as well as 70 percent of
them were happy that their wellbeing was raised and living conditions improved.
43   percent   declared   that   they   already   managed   to   purchase   or   construct   a   house,
while   32   percent   purchased   a   car.   Working   abroad   and   the   remittances   they   sent
also helped 34 percent of the respondents to raise their position in the society. The
opportunity   of   spending   more   on   health   was   indicated   by   33   percent   of   the
migrants,   while   17   percent   also   indicated   the   opportunity   to   provide   better
education   to   the   children.   38   percent   of   the   respondents   also   managed   to   save   a
considerable amount of money, while only 6 percent invested in establishing small
business   or   beginning   entrepreneurship   activity.   There   was   also   very   interesting
result   that   21   percent   of   our   respondents   declared   that   they   acquired   new
profession and skills, which is in fact a very good positive outcome. At the same
time 47 percent of the respondents claimed that working abroad doesn’t have any
negative effects, but  38 percent  of  them, however, accept  that their labor  activity
outside of their home place is associated with bad negative physiological effects on
them.   Unfortunately,   14   percent   of   our   respondents   complained   that   during   their
stay abroad their health worsened. 3 percent of them accused their work abroad for
worsening of their relations with spouses, while one percent of them were already
divorced with a spouse due to their migration abroad.
Only   6   percent   of   the   respondents   stated   that   they   have   invested   in
establishing   small   business   or   beginning   entrepreneurship   activity   using   their
remittances.   It   was   very   interesting   to   find   out   why   only   small   share   of   labor
migrants   and   their   households   invested   in   small   business   and   entrepreneurship:
Whether   this   is   connected   with   institutional   factors,   financial   constraints,   skills
shortage   or   some   other   problems.   In   order   to   find   answers   to   this   question   all
respondents   were   asked   following   question:   -   If   you   want   to   return   home   and
establish your own small business or begin entrepreneurship activity, what kind of
obstacles   may   hinder   this?   More   than   half   of   the   respondents   indicated   that   the
18 savings from remittances are not enough for beginning business activity. Absence
of knowledge for organizational issues were seen as an obstacle by some working
migrants, while others also complained on the lack of managerial skills to open and
run   a   small   business.   A   few   of   them   also   were   concerned   about   the   lack   of
experience in the business and entrepreneurship field that could hinder them to be
successful. Our discussions with remittances receiving households that invested in
small  business  and entrepreneurship and opinions of different experts in the field
also confirmed above results, as in general remittances receiving households invest
in those type of businesses which need relatively small amount of financial means
and   don’t   require   strong   organizational   and   managerial   skills   and   as   well   as
innovation,   like   small   shops,   small   cafes,   car   repair   workshops,   small   family
livestock farms, etc. Our previous researches and the analysis of the opportunities
for   small   business   and   entrepreneurship   development   in   Uzbekistan   which   was
done within this work showed existence of well developed institutional, and legal
basis for this type of activity in the country. The results of our survey indicate that,
for   more   efficient   use   of   the   remittances   through   partly   investing   them   in
sustainable   business   projects   by   receiving   households,   there   is   a   need   for   further
additional   financial   help(in   the   form   of   loans)   and   organizational   support   for
remittances   receiving   household   in   order   to   stimulate   them   to   invest   in   business
activity
19 2.2.  Social and Cultural Impacts
Emigration   has   profound   social   and   cultural   implications   for   both   the
individuals who migrate and the communities they leave behind. This section will
explore   the   effects   of   emigration   on   family   structures,   social   cohesion,   and   the
transmission of cultural values and traditions. It will also examine the phenomenon
of   transnationalism,   where individuals  maintain  strong ties  to  their   home country
while living abroad, and the impact of such connections on identity formation and
social integration.
The survey was carried out in Moscow during October 2010 - March 2011
among   labor   migrants   who   are   citizens   of   Uzbekistan.   Moscow   was   chosen   as   a
place for the survey based on the fact that biggest share of labor migrants come to
Russia   and   Moscow   attracts   a   bulk   of   the   total   migrants   thanks   to   wider
possibilities   of   employment   in   different   sectors   of   the   economy,   including:
construction,   communal   services,   public   catering,   transportation   and   others.   The
survey   was   carried   out   in   the   form   of   interviews   with   the   help   of   questionnaires
among  150   randomly   selected   members   of   the   target   group,  i.e.   migrant   workers
who are Uzbekistan citizens. Before the survey it was important to determine the
approximate share of interviewees according to their employment sectors and their
gender   division.  According  to  different   experts’   opinions   communal  services  and
construction   are   the   main   sectors   where   labor   migrants   from   Uzbekistan   are
engaged   in   Moscow   city.   However,   it   was   difficult   to   decide   on   precise   shares.
Based   on   our   estimations   (using   several   experts’   opinions   and   the   numbers
provided in different analytical materials) it was decided to have about one fifth of
our   interviewees from construction sector and about quarter of interviewees from
communal   services   sector.   The   rest   of   our   so   called   “sectoral   quotas”   for
interviewers was distributed among other sectors like retail trade, public catering,
transportation and others, according to their estimated importance for employment
of labor migrants from Uzbekistan. It was easier  to decide on gender structure of
the interviewees as both experts and our data confirms the share of women in total
20 number   of   labor   migrants   to   be   about   15   percent 1
.   The   survey   was   carried   out
directly in the work places of labor migrants or in the places where they live. The
process   was   carried   in   a   friendly   atmosphere,   taking   into   consideration   the
sensitivity level of each single question and questionnaires were filled directly by
interviewer   based   on   answers   from   the   respondents   during   the   interviews.   This
provided high quality of the results and correctness of the answers inserted in the
questionnaires.
The   respondents   in   this   age   group   (16-25)   are   the   young   people   with
secondary   or   secondary-special   education,   who   just   finished   high   school,   college
or returned from obligatory military service and mainly want to gather money for
their own wedding or further education. This type of labor migrant fall under the
category of ”grooms” – this is how some migration experts in Russia call them. In
contrast, the middle age people in the age groups of 36-40 years, 41-45 years and
46-50   years   make   up,   on   average,   8.7   percent   of   the   total   pool   of   respondents.
These   migrant   workers   mostly   have   secondary   or   higher   education   and   are   the
main breadwinners of a family and want  to earn money for daily consumption of
the family members, to build or reconstruct their house, to organize the weddings
of their children and others.
87.3   percent   of   the   migrant   workers   who   took   part   in   the   survey   indicated
that they have either secondary (10-11 classes) or secondary-special education. In
contrast,   only   11.3   percent   of   the   respondents   indicated   possession   of   higher
education   (Already   this   fact   shows   that   biggest   part   of   these   migrant   workers
potentially   cannot   aspire   to   high-skilled   jobs   and   this   makes   them   seek
employment   mostly   in   3D   job   sectors.   Besides   this,   only   14   percent   of   the
respondents   confirmed   that   they   are   fluent   in   Russian,   while   23   percent   of   the
respondents indicated possession of very little Russian. At the same 37 percent and
45   percent   of   the   respondents   said   that   they   can   read   and   write   in   Russian   very
little. This fact  again underlines less competitiveness  of these migrant workers in
1
Natalya   M.,   Morozova   A.,   Ekaterina   K.,   Rudakova   A.,   Elena   S.   Lukashenko.   Emographic   and   economic
peculiarities   of   migration   from   Tajikistan   and   Uzbekistan   to   Russia   //   International   Scientific   Forum   «National
Interest, National Identity and National Security»,  Published by European Publisher,    2021 . P-645.
21 Russia’s   high-skilled   job   market   and   also   puts   them   in   vulnerable   position   in
employment relations 1
.
The   breakdown   of   the   respondents   according   to   their   family   status   shows
that more than half of the migrant workers or 58 percent are married people who
are responsible for the wellbeing of their families, while divorced people make up
only   6   percent   of   the   respondents   which   is,   in   fact,   a   suggesting   indicator   that
divorces are not welcomed in Uzbek society so far. The young people who are still
single and probably working to earn for creating a financial basis for their further
family life make up 36 percent. Ethnic structure of  respondents confirms that  the
majority of working migrants from Uzbekistan in Russia are Uzbeks, while others
like   Tatars,   Tajiks,   Kyrgyzs   and   Kazakhs   make   up   a   small   share.   In   our   pool,
Uzbeks   make   up   88.7   percent   and   the   other’s   11.3   percent,   among   which   Tajiks
have the biggest share, i.e. 8 percent.
A very interesting result is derived from the analysis of the gender structure
of respondents, where female migrant workers have a 15 percent share. According
to most experts, the share of women in total out labor migration from Uzbekistan,
like   in   neighboring   Tajikistan   and   Kyrgyzstan,   has   been   steadily   increasing   in
recent   years.   The   phenomenon   is   explained   by   the   impact   of   different   push   and
pull factors like limited employment opportunities for women and lower wages in
the   origin   country,   as   well   as   wider   employment   chances   and   higher   wages   in
destination countries. For example, the latest research by UNIFEM states that, “…
low   wages   in   Kyrgyzstan,   Tajikistan   and   Uzbekistan   put   great   pressure   on
families, as it is very difficult to live on the earnings of a sole male breadwinner. In
order   to   survive,   families   have   to   rely   on   dual   incomes   and   working   women
become   important   contributors   to   their   family   budget.   However,   the   sectors   in
which   women   were   traditionally   employed   in   the   region,   such   as   textile
manufacturing, clothes manufacturing and others have considerably reduced their
workforce due to the economic crisis….” (UNIFEM 2009).
1
   Giorgi Khishtovani., Maya Komakhidze.  Reviewing Migration and Development The role of local authorities in
Central Asia // CAREC Institute. Visiting Fellow Program 2020, Migration in Central Asia, P-16 .
22 During the survey it was very important to find out if the working migrants
are the main earners for their families or if there are some other members in their
families who have monthly income, as this provides an idea about what would be
the economic situation of the family without a member working abroad. Analysis
of   the   results   shows   that   36   percent   of   these   migrants   have   one   more   family
member   either   working   in   Uzbekistan   or   abroad,   which   means   that   the   financial
burden of their family is shared with someone else. In case the migrant loses their
job, becomes ill or injured, or dies the family will not be left without any sources
of income and fall under poverty line. Besides this, in the families of 19.3 percent
and 14 percent of the migrants there are 2 and 3 people working and generating a
monthly   income.   Analysis   of   the   age   structure   and   migration   purposes   of   the
migrants   in   this   category   shows   that   these   people   are   mostly   young   single   or
middle age married people who want to collect money for their wedding, purchase
of a car and for house construction. At the same time, 2 percent of the respondents
indicated   that   in   their   families   there   are   additional   5   or   6   persons   who   have
monthly   income   besides   them.   In   fact,   these   respondents   are   young   people   who
come   from   families   with   10   or   more   people.   Unfortunately,   22.7   percent   of   the
working   migrants   declared   to   be   the   only   source   of   income   for   their   families   in
Uzbekistan, which shows the highly vulnerable position of their families in front of
any   unexpected   situation.   A   very   interesting   fact   is   that   38.7   percent   of   the
respondents declared that they do not support anyone with the money they earn in
Russia,   i.e. these   are  the  young single  people  who are  collecting  money  for   their
weeding or start-up capital for their future life in Uzbekistan, or middle age people
who need money for construction, purchase of car, etc.
Identification   of   the   main   pull   and   push   factors   which   stimulate   people   in
Uzbekistan to go abroad was one of the main goals of this survey, and analysis of
the answers by respondents provides us with a very interesting picture. Among the
multiple   choices   provided   in   the   questionnaire   -   “gathering   money   for   wedding”
was chosen by 59 percent of the working migrants. “To gather money for purchase
of   car”   -   was   indicated   as   one   of   the   decision   making   factors   by   51   percent   of
23 respondents, while gathering money to purchase or construct a house (apartment)
was indicated by 45 percent of them.   Our survey confirmed that social networks
and   social   ties   are   main   factors   in   how   migrants’   find   a   job   in   the   Russian
Federation.
Some   very   interesting   facts   were   derived   from   the   analysis   of   the   answers
for   question   regarding   the   activity   in   which   the   labor   migrants   were   engaged
before   their   “migrant   career”.   59   percent   of   current   migrant   laborers   had   had   a
particular   job   in   Uzbekistan,   i.e.   had   been   employed   before   they   decided   to   go
abroad in search of job. About one third of them declared that they didn’t have an
official   employed   position   while   they   decided   to   try   their   luck   abroad.   Only   3
percent and one percent of the respondents decided to go work outside Uzbekistan
right after finishing college and obligatory military service respectively. 
As   it   is   a   widely   spread   belief   that   in   most   migrant   receiving   countries
migrant workers steal jobs of local people, in recent years, in Russia anti-migrant
moods   have   been   fueled   with   this   belief   as   well.   In   fact,   for   some   people   in
government and political parties, this is a very good argument against why a lot of
people   in   Russia   are   unemployed   while   millions   of   foreigners   are   working   there
and sending home billions of dollars each year.  Therefore we tried to shed light on
this issue during our survey. To our question “if there were other candidates from
local people for the job which was taken by migrant workers?” – 54 percent of the
respondents   replied   that   there   weren’t   any   candidates   for   their   jobs   from   local
people, as they do not want to do the work which is done by migrant workers. 36
percent of them indicated that they do not know if there were any other candidates
from  local  people or  not. However, 10 percent  of  the  respondents  confirmed that
there were other local people who would have liked to have the same jobs.
“If there were other candidates for your work place from local people, why
did   the   employer   hire   you”   –   this   was   our   next   question   to   the   respondents   who
confirmed that there were other local candidates and to the ones who weren’t sure
if there were any other candidates or not. Majority of them, i.e. 32 percent replied
that they are preferred by employers as it is much cheaper to hire them. This is true
24 as   the   majority   of   irregular   migrant   workers   from   Uzbekistan   and   other   Central
Asian   countries   work   in   the   territory   of   the   Russian   Federation   without   work
permits,   which   makes   them   agree   to   work   for   the   pay   which  is   significantly   less
than   it   must   be   for   a   local   worker   or   the   regular   migrant   with   a   work   permit.
Therefore   a   great   share   of   employers   (especially   representatives   of   the   private
sector) is eager to hire irregular migrant workers, which can be paid much less and
can   be   fired   anytime   as   they   do   not   have   any   rights   because     of   their   irregular
status. In fact, this practice is mainly possible due to high corruption rates among
local officials, police and other authorities in the field of migration.
23 percent of the respondents also claimed that they were more completive
as   they   do   not   drink   alcohol   and   obey   all   rules   set   by   the   employer.   In   fact,
alcoholism and drunkenness at work places are among the main social problems of
modern   Russia.   Besides   this,   “high   levels   of   alcohol   consumption   and   violent
crime   are   major   public   health   concerns   in   the   Russian   Federation.   Therefore
employers try to hire so called “gastarbeiters” from Central Asia most of whom do
not   drink   alcohol   at   all,   and   come   to   work   sober.   This   is   very   important   for   the
employers   functioning   in   the   public   transport   sector   like   private   taxi   companies
Surprisingly,   the   result   of   this   question   was   that   five   percent   of   the   respondents
were sure that they were hired as they are more qualified for the job they have in
comparison  to  local   candidates.  However   30 percent   of   the respondents   were not
sure why the employer gave preference to them over local candidates. 32 percent
of the small and medium businesses (which took part in the survey) stated that the
locals   would   work   in   the   same   jobs   which   are   currently   occupied   by   migrant
workers   if   the   salaries   were   higher.   At   the   same   time   28   percent   of   the   small
businesses   and   15   percent   of   medium   businesses   consider   that   Russian   workers
could get the same jobs if they would not drink alcohol.
25 Conclusion
The socio-economic impacts of emigration from Uzbekistan are multifaceted
and   require   a   comprehensive   understanding   to   develop   effective   policies   and
interventions.   This   course   work   has   examined   the   patterns,   drivers,   and
consequences  of  emigration, highlighting both the challenges  and opportunities it
presents. By addressing these issues, Uzbekistan can strive towards harnessing the
potential   benefits   of   emigration   while   minimizing   its   adverse   effects,   ultimately
paving   the   way   for   sustainable   socio-economic   development.   policy
recommendations   aimed   at   mitigating   the   negative   socio-economic   impacts   of
emigration from Uzbekistan.  It  will propose strategies for  addressing brain drain,
fostering   human   capital   development,   promoting   economic   diversification,   and
maximizing   the   positive   effects   of   remittances.   Additionally,   it   will   suggest
measures   to   strengthen   social   support   systems,   encourage   diaspora   engagement,
and facilitate the return and reintegration of emigrants.
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10. www.stat.uz   
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Ministry of Higher Education Science and Innovation of the Republic of Uzbekistan, Samarkand State University named after Sharof Rashidov, Master of History degree . COURSE WORK Science : The history of migration processes in Central Asia. Topic: The Socio-economic Impacts of Emigration from Uzbekistan . Student: Suyarov Makhmudjon. Teacher: prof. Nurulla-xodjayeva Nargis. Samarkand-2023 2

Content Introduction I. Emigration methods, factors and its effects on brain drain condition 1.1 Emigration Patterns and Drivers 1.2. Brain Drain and Human Capital II. Influence of emigration at state economic growth and its societal effect 2.1. Remittances and Economic Development: 2.2. Social and Cultural Impacts. Conclusion References 3

Introduction Emigration, the act of leaving one's country to settle permanently in another, has become a significant phenomenon in Uzbekistan. Over the years, an increasing number of individuals have chosen to emigrate, seeking better economic opportunities 1 and improved living standards 2 . This course work aims to explore the socio-economic impacts of emigration from Uzbekistan, shedding light on the various factors that contribute to this trend and analyzing its consequences on both the individuals and the country as a whole. Between 2000 and 2020, more than 1 million people emigrated from Uzbekistan. The number of emigrants was 11 times higher than the number of those who immigrated to Uzbekistan. Statistics show that the number of emigrants from Uzbekistan (1,107,584 people) is 11 times higher than the number of immigrants (99,341 people). There are socio- economic consequences of migration and remittance decisions of the Uzbek households. We first draw a portrait of a typical migrant worker, paying special attention to the motives for migration and the skills that the migrants possess. We trace the portrait of the typical migrant worker to see the changes in migration profile over time. We also investigate the impact of migration and remittances on livelihoods of migrant-sending families. Our results indicate that financial constraints, especially on non-food and health expenditures, act as a push-factor for migration in Uzbekistan. 1 K.A.Bondarenko . Labor Migration from Uzbekistan: a family and community promoted Big Bang // Regional Research of Russia, Vol. 11, No. 2. – Moscow .: published in Prostranstvennaya Ekonomika, 2020. P-275. 2 Juraev A. R. Doctoral Thesis. Labor Migration from Uzbekistan: Social and Economic Impacts on Local Development. Doctoral Programme in Local Development and Global Dynamics, University of Trento School of Social Sciences, 202. p-170. 4

I. Emigration methods, factors and its effects on brain drain condition 1.1 Emigration Patterns and Drivers This section will search into the reasons behind the emigration from Uzbekistan, examining the push 1 and pull factors that influence individuals' decisions to leave their homeland. Factors such as economic disparities, political instability, lack of job prospects, and limited access to social services will be discussed. Additionally, the role of family reunification, educational opportunities, and global migration networks will be explored. After independence migration has become one of the important characteristics of social and economic development in Uzbekistan. Beginning of this process first of all was movement of non-Uzbek nationals (especially Russians, Ukrains, Belorussians, etc) from Uzbekistan for permanent residence to their and their parents’ homelands. According to official statistic data, only in 1992 the number of people who emigrated from Uzbekistan was 424086 or about 3 percent of the total population of the country in that year. At the same time, from the beginning of 1993, the number of people leaving the country permanently began declining sharply. If in 1993 the total number of people emigrated was 16 percent less than it was 1992, within five years the indicator declined more than twice and in 1997 made only 195001. During 1997-2009 emigration dynamics kept at the level of about 200 thousand persons per year. Analysis of the statistic data from different sources also show that among the people emigrating from Uzbekistan, the share of the people leaving to Russia was the biggest. According to ethnic structure of the population of Uzbekistan, Russians used to make up the biggest minority group (it is true for current situation as well) and accordingly we can suppose that among the people who left to the Russian Federation during 1990s Russian minorities were the majority of this group. 1 Anannya Chakraborty, Prof. SK Acharya and Chethana.K. The Push Factors of Migration: An Empirical Study // International Conference on Agriculture and Allied Sciences: The Productivity, Food Security and Ecology. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/338178046 , 2019. P-127. 5

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