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The history of migration processes in Central Asia.

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Ministry of Higher Education Science and Innovation of the Republic of Uzbekistan, Samarkand State University named after Sharof Rashidov, Master of History degree . COURSE WORK Science : The history of migration processes in Central Asia. Topic: The Socio-economic Impacts of Emigration from Uzbekistan . Student: Suyarov Makhmudjon. Teacher: prof. Nurulla-xodjayeva Nargis. Samarkand-2023 2 Content Introduction I. Emigration methods, factors and its effects on brain drain condition 1.1 Emigration Patterns and Drivers 1.2. Brain Drain and Human Capital II. Influence of emigration at state economic growth and its societal effect 2.1. Remittances and Economic Development: 2.2. Social and Cultural Impacts. Conclusion References 3 Introduction Emigration, the act of leaving one's country to settle permanently in another, has become a significant phenomenon in Uzbekistan. Over the years, an increasing number of individuals have chosen to emigrate, seeking better economic opportunities 1 and improved living standards 2 . This course work aims to explore the socio-economic impacts of emigration from Uzbekistan, shedding light on the various factors that contribute to this trend and analyzing its consequences on both the individuals and the country as a whole. Between 2000 and 2020, more than 1 million people emigrated from Uzbekistan. The number of emigrants was 11 times higher than the number of those who immigrated to Uzbekistan. Statistics show that the number of emigrants from Uzbekistan (1,107,584 people) is 11 times higher than the number of immigrants (99,341 people). There are socio- economic consequences of migration and remittance decisions of the Uzbek households. We first draw a portrait of a typical migrant worker, paying special attention to the motives for migration and the skills that the migrants possess. We trace the portrait of the typical migrant worker to see the changes in migration profile over time. We also investigate the impact of migration and remittances on livelihoods of migrant-sending families. Our results indicate that financial constraints, especially on non-food and health expenditures, act as a push-factor for migration in Uzbekistan. 1 K.A.Bondarenko . Labor Migration from Uzbekistan: a family and community promoted Big Bang // Regional Research of Russia, Vol. 11, No. 2. – Moscow .: published in Prostranstvennaya Ekonomika, 2020. P-275. 2 Juraev A. R. Doctoral Thesis. Labor Migration from Uzbekistan: Social and Economic Impacts on Local Development. Doctoral Programme in Local Development and Global Dynamics, University of Trento School of Social Sciences, 202. p-170. 4 I. Emigration methods, factors and its effects on brain drain condition 1.1 Emigration Patterns and Drivers This section will search into the reasons behind the emigration from Uzbekistan, examining the push 1 and pull factors that influence individuals' decisions to leave their homeland. Factors such as economic disparities, political instability, lack of job prospects, and limited access to social services will be discussed. Additionally, the role of family reunification, educational opportunities, and global migration networks will be explored. After independence migration has become one of the important characteristics of social and economic development in Uzbekistan. Beginning of this process first of all was movement of non-Uzbek nationals (especially Russians, Ukrains, Belorussians, etc) from Uzbekistan for permanent residence to their and their parents’ homelands. According to official statistic data, only in 1992 the number of people who emigrated from Uzbekistan was 424086 or about 3 percent of the total population of the country in that year. At the same time, from the beginning of 1993, the number of people leaving the country permanently began declining sharply. If in 1993 the total number of people emigrated was 16 percent less than it was 1992, within five years the indicator declined more than twice and in 1997 made only 195001. During 1997-2009 emigration dynamics kept at the level of about 200 thousand persons per year. Analysis of the statistic data from different sources also show that among the people emigrating from Uzbekistan, the share of the people leaving to Russia was the biggest. According to ethnic structure of the population of Uzbekistan, Russians used to make up the biggest minority group (it is true for current situation as well) and accordingly we can suppose that among the people who left to the Russian Federation during 1990s Russian minorities were the majority of this group. 1 Anannya Chakraborty, Prof. SK Acharya and Chethana.K. The Push Factors of Migration: An Empirical Study // International Conference on Agriculture and Allied Sciences: The Productivity, Food Security and Ecology. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/338178046 , 2019. P-127. 5 Another big emigration outflow from Uzbekistan was distributed among Central Asian states, and from total emigration during 1991-2008, these countries had about 20 percent share. Among all these countries Kazakhstan was the most preferred by the migrants based on all indicators 1 . Recent emigration from Uzbekistan to Kazakhstan almost doubled in comparison to the beginning of 1990s, and its share in total emigration increased from 8.9 percent in 1991 to 25.2 percent in 2001 and in recent years it is reaching 35-40 percent, which shows evidence of changing emigration directions. As we saw above, emigration of non- Uzbek nationals which began with high numbers after 1991 continued slowing down its dynamics, while number of people going abroad for business or temporary work purposes began rising. From the beginning of 2000, the new stage in these migration processes began which is closely connected with high economic growth in Russia and Kazakhstan thanks to their rich oil and natural gas resources, as well as newly appeared opportunities for citizens of Uzbekistan to have work experience abroad through official intergovernmental agreements. A lot of people from different backgrounds and geographical areas of Uzbekistan began migrating to Russia and Kazakhstan to find a temporary job in different sectors of the economy. This phenomenon is connected with different push and pull factors like high number of unregistered unemployment, low level of real wages, relative high payment rates for labor in the Russian Federation and Kazakhstan, as well as a non-visa regime for crossing borders of these countries. According to data presented by the State Customs Committee (the only available data and only for 2008 and 2010) which is based on peoples’ declarations at customs check points about their purpose of travel, the number of people leaving the country to work abroad in 2010 was almost 702 thousand. If we compare this number with 2008, we see that it increased by 6 percent 2 . 1 Ahunov M. , Kakhkharov J., Parpiev Z., Inna Wolfson. Socio-economic consequences of labor migration in Uzbekistan. 2015. P-4. 2 www.stat.uz 6 More interesting facts are provided by the gender division of these people going to work abroad. For example according to data for 2008, the share of women in the number of labor migrants was 14 percent and made up almost 90 thousand. In 2010, this share increased to 15 percent and made up 107 thousand. However, the percentage change in the number of women traveling for the purposes of working abroad in 2010 over 2008 was 19 percent. The above stated fact provides confirmation to experts’ opinions that, in the last years, along with the rising number of men labor migrants, the number of women going to work abroad is increasing, which shows evidence of the changing role of women in the family. In order to shed brighter light on the issue, in this section we will use also the results of sociological survey carried out by the research center “Tahlil”. The survey was carried out in 12 regions of the Republic of Uzbekistan, the Republic of Karakalpakstan and Tashkent city through the method of a contact interview and standardized questionnaire. In total, 1514 people participated in the survey. Among the interviewed, men made up 47.2 percent and women 52.8 percent, while 36.4 percent of them were inhabitants of cities and 63.6 percent lived in villages. Besides this, we will closely refer to the outcomes we had from our small survey in the form of interviews in two regions (Navoiy and Kashkadarya) of Uzbekistan during November-December, 2009. According to the survey by “Tahlil”, since 2005, popularity of the Russian Federation in preferences of potential migrants among countries where they would like to go for temporary earnings has been increasing; so, if in 2004, 29.7 percent of potential migrants were intending to go to Russia, then in 2006, this number increased to 53.7 percent. According to this indicator Russia is ahead of all countries For our research it is also very important to understand what are the main factors influencing the people’s decision on migration, we can analyse results of the survey by “Tahlil”, where 46.9 percent of respondents support their decision to go abroad for temporary work with the need for earning money for material security and financial support of their families; while 22.1 percent and 24.5 percent wanted to earn money as the solution of their important 7 social and everyday problems and improve material welfare respectively. Only 6.4 percent stated that they were eager to collect money for start-up capital for business activity. It must be underlined that during our small survey it was very interesting to understand whether these people are interested in working in government or the private sector, or beginning their own entrepreneurial activity in spite of migration. All of respondents indicated that they would prefer to work at home rather than going to foreign countries if they had opportunity to earn appropriate money. But at the same time, they had doubt about the possibility of earning appropriate money through working in the government sector (as well as the private sector) or beginning a small business. Of course the level of wages in both sectors cannot be said to be at a satisfactory level in comparison with earnings abroad. But respondents’ doubts concerned with possibilities of developing small business or private entrepreneurship seems to be unjustified as our previous research showed that currently in Uzbekistan there is very good institutional and legal basis for the development of a small business and entrepreneurship. Obviously, there are some factors that are an obstacle for further development of small business and entrepreneurship which could be optimal alternative for labor migrants. We already examined these obstacles in our previous research. The question was: What are the main problems currently existing in small entrepreneurship field and what are the main hindering factors in its further development? Strong push factors, which are very important for all labor migrants in the world, like unemployment and low wages 1 . This fact already shows that for the biggest part of migrants working abroad wasn’t a way to survive or to make ends meet, but it is a faster way to collect money for concrete purposes like weddings, purchase of a car or a house, which means the prevalence of pull factors over push factors like higher wages in taking the migration decision among labor migrants from Uzbekistan. Unfortunately, minority of migrants were thinking about saving 1 William Seitz. International Migration and Household Well-Being Evidence from Uzbekistan // Policy Research Working Paper 8910, 2019. P -16. 8 money for start-up capital for future entrepreneurship activity when they took decision to go abroad to work. At the same time, they haven’t almost wanted to earn some money abroad to establish their own small business at home It was also interesting to look at the impact of push and pull factors from gender perspective, as gradually the share of female labor migrants has been increasing. The analysis of the survey results shows that lower salaries and a need to gather money for wedding have been indicated by 12 and 11 respondents out of 22 female working migrants that took part in the survey, respectively. The age and marital status of these respondents show that lower salaries were mostly stated as a push factor by 18-31 years age group who are either single or divorced young women. While gathering money for wedding was one of main factors influencing the migration decision of the respondents in age group of 34-50, that are married middle age woman with children. A desire to collect money for purchasing a house or an apartment incited migration of the 10 female respondents. The factors like “unemployment” and “to gather money for higher education” were indicated by 6 of the women migrants that participated in the survey. Only two and one of the female respondents stated that needed start-up capital for entrepreneurship activity and wanted to earn money to organize own small business, respectively. Different research on migration states that the very poor do not migrate as they cannot afford the travel costs, and in case their travel expenses are covered by the mediators, they risk becoming victims of slavery. Our results on “financing the migrant’s travel expenses” along with other above discussed answers confirm that a big share of migrants from Uzbekistan are in the middle income range as 67 percent of them indicated that their travel to Russia is financed by own (family) means. 23 percent of them borrowed the money for the ticket and other expenses from relatives, while 10 percent of them borrowed money from friends. Only two percent of the migrants indicated other sources as a main means for financing their travel expenses. Of course there are a considerable number of very poor people who travel to Russia from Uzbekistan in search of work without having any money, which is possible due to agreements with mediators, whom they have to 9 pay back by working when they arrive in Russia. Most of these people end up in slavery and get no pay in the end. According to survey results, only 39 percent of the migrants had known where they would be working before arriving in Russia, i.e. they had an arranged work placement. 31 percent of them replied that they had had some information about their future work placement but didn’t have an exact idea. At the same time, almost one third of all respondents declared that they hadn’t known what they would be doing when they arrived in Russia, which means that they were in a risk group which could be cheated, exploited or left without any job It was also interesting to explore how the migrants from Uzbekistan make their way to Russia. 10 1.2. Brain Drain and Human Capital: Emigration often leads to the loss of skilled professionals, resulting in a phenomenon known as brain drain. This section will analyze the impact of brain drain on Uzbekistan's human capital development. It will highlight the loss of highly skilled individuals, such as doctors, engineers, and researchers, and the subsequent effects on the country's healthcare system, infrastructure development, and scientific advancements. Brain drain is also known as “The human capital flight”. It can be simply defined as the mass emigration of technically skilled people from one country to another country. Brain-drain can have many reasons, for example, political instability of a nation, lack of opportunities, health risks, personal conflicts etc 1 . They are introduced by observing the emigration of the various technologists, doctors and scientists, from various developing countries (including Europe) to more developed nations like USA. The Human flight and brain drain indicator considers the economic impact of human displacement (for economic or political reasons) and the consequences this may have on a country’s development. The higher the index, the greater the human displacement Brain drain (even it is not significant in the current stage) might cause underdevelopment of particular social and economic sectors where skilled labor is needed in the medium and long terms. However, big number of people who leave to work abroad each year, and a significant share of which are turning to temporary labor migration as their permanent life style, are already decreasing payments towards the Pension Fund (as they do not have official job in Uzbekistan and do not make a contribution to the fund). This will have serious financial problems and will create an extra burden to the government budget in the long term perspective when these migrants reach pension age and will be paid a pension according to the age. This situation in turn may bring us to a significant budget deficit. 1 А. Р. Бяшарова ., Г. Ш. Карабаева ., Л. М. Ашурзода ., Д. Р. Таджиева ., Р. М. Латыпова . Актуальные вопросы международной миграции в Узбекистане // Вестник Алтайской Академии Экономики и Права № 5, 2023. С -39. 11 Review of the large amount of research materials and empirical evidence shows how international migration has both direct and indirect positive influences on the development of sending countries through remittances, employment generation( by investment of remittances), human capital generation, etc. T here is evidence to indicate that additions to human capital may have their biggest impact on growth through technical progress rather than through raising worker productivity. Current investments on education and health of the family members in remittance receiving families will have a positive impact on local economies in the form of improved human capital in the medium and long term perspective. However, there is still a huge unused potential of remittances in the form of family savings which could give a boost to local economic growth if they were attracted to local bank deposits and provided to local private sector as additional loans. For that indicator, we provide data for Uzbekistan from 2007 to 2023. The average value for Uzbekistan during that period was 6.05 index points with a minimum of 4.8 index points in 2023 and a maximum of 7.1 index points in 2007. The latest value from 2023 is 4.8 index points. For comparison, the world average in 2023 based on 177 countries is 5.17 index points. The COVID-19 pandemic threatens economies and has disrupted societies everywhere. To recover, restore, and rebuild, every country will need to lean on expertise and the very best of its human capital. However, in Central Asia, the bitter truth is that systems that were already struggling before the pandemic will suffer more because so many of their best and brightest have simply left. This brain drain of the region’s human capital now poses nearly as big a problem as the virus itself. Once the pandemic fades, governments hope their citizens abroad can be enticed home to help their native countries heal from the effects of the pandemic, applying their knowledge, skills, networks and finances to the problems of recovery. Yet appeals to altruism and patriotism may not be sufficient. For instance, the region’s largest country, Uzbekistan, is already trying to find new and additional appeals to attract these specialists to return. There are two schools of 12 thought on this in Uzbekistan. One is that many intelligent and capable Uzbeks left because they were not valued by the established system. A second view claims that Uzbekistan still has many well-educated and skilled people inside the country but their skills are misapplied. Put bluntly, what remains of Uzbekistan’s human capital base is not doing the right things, or doing them in the right places 1 . When Shavkat Mirziyoyev came to power and promised to create a new Uzbekistan and had to expand his patriotic appeals, lean on an array of new incentives and enticements, and, ultimately, broaden the country’s political, economic, and intellectual establishment. The patriotic piece of this appeal is the most straightforward. Proud of their ancient history, culture, and scientific heritage, Uzbeks have always shared the dream of a prosperous, truly independent society where people could achieve their own dreams and every citizen have a chance to thrive. In this, Uzbekistan is not unique. The ‘Uzbek dream’ has echoes in most developing countries, including those that are considered to be fast-rising powers, such as China and India. Like Uzbeks, millions of their citizens also live and work in the more advanced economies of North America, Europe, Australia, and New Zealand. And also just like those countries, millions of Uzbeks have sought opportunities for study and work abroad, settling wherever they can best pursue their professional and economic dreams. Both sides of Uzbekistan’s human capital debate reflect elements of the true picture. Many talented Uzbeks have indeed emigrated in the face of a system that has not known how to appreciate them. At the same time, many of the talented Uzbeks who remain are underutilised, underpaid, or undervalued. Adham Bekmurodov leads an ambitious government effort, ‘El-yurt umidi’, or the Nation’s Hope Foundation. With an initial state investment of $75 million at its launch in late 2018, the programme envisioned training 5,000 specialists within two to three years at the top schools around the world. 1 Imomova N. Reversing brain drain is the key to Uzbekistan’s future // https://cabar.asia/en/reversing-brain-drain- is-the-key-to-uzbekistan-s-future , 18.12. 2023. 13 II. Influence of emigration at state economic growth and its societal effect 2.1. Remittances and Economic Development: Remittances, the money sent back home by emigrants, play a crucial role in the economic development of Uzbekistan. This section will examine the significance of remittances as a source of income and foreign exchange earnings for the country. It will analyze the contribution of remittances to poverty reduction, consumption patterns, and investment in various sectors of the economy. Furthermore, the challenges and potential risks associated with overreliance on remittances will be discussed. Remittances are a rather new phenomenon for Uzbekistan which has appeared after independence and reached big amounts after 2000. In the middle and late 90’s, inflow of remittances was especially through unofficial channels, i.e. passing outside banking or money transfer systems. Therefore, it was difficult to calculate the amount of money brought to the country by laborers from abroad. In recent years several money transfer systems have begun operating actively in the Uzbekistan market. Again here the absence of official and publicly available data on total amount of incoming remittances forces us to use secondary data from some and very rare research pieces on remittances in Uzbekistan, and carry out our own estimations using different sources of data. In this connection we try to analyze the dynamic of incoming remittances to Uzbekistan by dividing it into two periods. First – 2002-2006, data for which was acquired from the research of Center for Economic Research, where the remittances data was calculated by authors of the report. Second – 2007-2011, where we calculated based on official amount of remittances sent through money transfer systems from Russia and Kazakhstan. The dynamics of incoming remittances during 2002-2006 is directly connected with the slowly increasing number of labor migrants who were leaving to work in Russia and Kazakhstan due to improved economic conditions in those countries and the rising demand for a cheaper labor force. during 2002-2006 annual flow of remittances to the country increased five times, making up a total of 1365 mil. USD in 2006, which is equal to 8.2 percent of GDP of Uzbekistan (CER, 14 2007). If we refer to statistical evidence we witness that the biggest share of these remittances are thanks to the migrants working in Russia. Russia has the leading role, providing 78 percent of total remittances, while Kazakhstan, which became considerably popular among migrants in last decade, has only a 5 percent share. This picture can be exactly due to the fact that big enough share of migrants’ money from Kazakhstan is sent home through friends, relatives, etc. or brought by migrants personally. The reason for this is the closer distance to their homes and the relatively less risky chance of losing money by migrants while crossing Uzbek-Kazakh border. Money flows from the USA and Korea, both of which possess a 3 percent share. In this case, again we can say that the number is interesting as only a few number of people can manage to go to the USA or Korea for a job, but the issue is that migrants in these countries on average earn a much greater amount of money than their compatriots in Russia and Kazakhstan In order to calculate the dynamics of incoming remittances to Uzbekistan during 2007-2011, we used data from the Central Bank of the Russian Federation and the National Bank of Kazakhstan on cross-border remittances via money transfer operators, and their estimated share in total amount of remittances received by households in Uzbekistan. The amount of incoming remittances during 2007- 2001 was calculated based on the following logic: According to experts’ opinion, in the second half of 2000, outflow of migrants (here cumulative causation and “migrant syndrome” seem have played crucial role) and incoming remittances had another wave of momentum and increased sharply. Besides this, in the second half of 2000 thanks to the increased number of money transfer operators, and the decreased price of transactions through these operators due to high competition, the share of remittances being sent through unofficial channels decreased dramatically. Thus according to experts’ estimates about 90 percent of total remittances are sent from Russia and Kazakhstan and about 10 percent of these remittances come through unofficial channels. 15 Now let’s look in brief at what are main influences of remittances on the economy. As we know, the main impact of remittances on GDP is the rise in the demand from side of the population in result of the increase of disposable income In macroeconomic context, interrelation between remittances and GDP has an indirect character of influence. This means that remittances first raise gross income of the population, which in turn forms disposable income. Disposable income generates demand from the population and households. Plus, only aggregate demand forms dynamics of GDP in the short and medium periods. Elements of aggregate demand are current government expenditures, demand for investment resources and external demand. Here it must be underlined that the difficulty of quantitative estimation of the impact of remittances on GDP connected with the fact that, besides remittances a lot of other factors have an effect on the level of disposable income such as: an increase in wages, expansion of the private sector, foreign economic activity, etc. as well as processes of liberalization and reformation of the economy have a solid effect on the income of the population. Special to Uzbekistan is that, people get part of their income from the sales of fruits and vegetables grown on homestead land, while part of the population earns some money thanks to their unregistered, small commercial activity which doesn’t get its attraction in the income statistics of the population. In the research done by the Center for economic Research in 2007, authors tried to study remittances and their role in the economy of the country. Of course, thanks to remittances we can see the reduction of inequality and the rise of monetization in the economy. But at the same time, we cannot agree with the item regarding new skills and technology enhancing creation of new sectors, as most of the migrants are working in such sectors where they cannot acquire any new skills or knowledge which they could use at home. In part concerned with the negative impacts, authors provided more realistic picture. The other half of respondents was enjoying USD 600 or less per month in average At the same time, 48 percent of them confirmed that they receive so called “grey wages”: Directly getting cash from employer, which means that they 16 cannot count for any kind of holiday or sick pay, not to mention, some for a pension or compensation in case of losing their job. Only 38 percent of all respondents claimed that they receive the salary through payroll. However, six percent lucky owners of bank accounts replied that their salaries are transferred to bank accounts. As discussed in previous chapters, the positive impact of out labor migration to origin communities comes through remittances, new skills, technology transfers and etc. However in our case, this impact can be mostly through the remittances, as the majority of labor migrants from Uzbekistan work in low skilled jobs and there cannot be any discussion about new skills or technologies which could be applied further in development of localities 1 . 97 percent of our respondents stated that they send money home, where 86 percent are regular senders. Only 3 percent of all working migrants declared that they do not send money back home. Among the migrants who send money home, 77 percent send it on a monthly basis. They said that they send money each month as soon as they get their salary, as keeping money with themselves is risky due to different factors. They just keep a decent amount for their living and send home the rest. 13 percent of them send money every two months while only one percent sends every three months. The biggest share or 29 percent of our respondents indicated that on average they send more than USD 600 per month, while 10 percent was sending USD 500-600 every month in average. Families of the other 21 percent of migrants were enjoying the remittances in the amount of USD 400-500 per month. However 16 percent of the respondents stated that they manage to send USD 300-400, while the other 16 percent could send only USD 200-300 per month. There were also 9 percent of migrants who complained that they cannot send more than USD 200 in average. As the main purpose of our research is to analyze what kind of impacts has out labor migration on people and sending localities in Uzbekistan, we tried to get 1 Rakhimov M., Yokubov F. Uzbekistan external migration: key trends and directions // Eurasian Research Journal, Vol. 4, No. 1, 2022. P-30. 17 labor migrants’ opinions and personal evolutions on this impact. 83 percent of migrant workers who took part in the survey confirmed that thanks to their work abroad their financial situation has improved considerably, as well as 70 percent of them were happy that their wellbeing was raised and living conditions improved. 43 percent declared that they already managed to purchase or construct a house, while 32 percent purchased a car. Working abroad and the remittances they sent also helped 34 percent of the respondents to raise their position in the society. The opportunity of spending more on health was indicated by 33 percent of the migrants, while 17 percent also indicated the opportunity to provide better education to the children. 38 percent of the respondents also managed to save a considerable amount of money, while only 6 percent invested in establishing small business or beginning entrepreneurship activity. There was also very interesting result that 21 percent of our respondents declared that they acquired new profession and skills, which is in fact a very good positive outcome. At the same time 47 percent of the respondents claimed that working abroad doesn’t have any negative effects, but 38 percent of them, however, accept that their labor activity outside of their home place is associated with bad negative physiological effects on them. Unfortunately, 14 percent of our respondents complained that during their stay abroad their health worsened. 3 percent of them accused their work abroad for worsening of their relations with spouses, while one percent of them were already divorced with a spouse due to their migration abroad. Only 6 percent of the respondents stated that they have invested in establishing small business or beginning entrepreneurship activity using their remittances. It was very interesting to find out why only small share of labor migrants and their households invested in small business and entrepreneurship: Whether this is connected with institutional factors, financial constraints, skills shortage or some other problems. In order to find answers to this question all respondents were asked following question: - If you want to return home and establish your own small business or begin entrepreneurship activity, what kind of obstacles may hinder this? More than half of the respondents indicated that the 18 savings from remittances are not enough for beginning business activity. Absence of knowledge for organizational issues were seen as an obstacle by some working migrants, while others also complained on the lack of managerial skills to open and run a small business. A few of them also were concerned about the lack of experience in the business and entrepreneurship field that could hinder them to be successful. Our discussions with remittances receiving households that invested in small business and entrepreneurship and opinions of different experts in the field also confirmed above results, as in general remittances receiving households invest in those type of businesses which need relatively small amount of financial means and don’t require strong organizational and managerial skills and as well as innovation, like small shops, small cafes, car repair workshops, small family livestock farms, etc. Our previous researches and the analysis of the opportunities for small business and entrepreneurship development in Uzbekistan which was done within this work showed existence of well developed institutional, and legal basis for this type of activity in the country. The results of our survey indicate that, for more efficient use of the remittances through partly investing them in sustainable business projects by receiving households, there is a need for further additional financial help(in the form of loans) and organizational support for remittances receiving household in order to stimulate them to invest in business activity 19 2.2. Social and Cultural Impacts Emigration has profound social and cultural implications for both the individuals who migrate and the communities they leave behind. This section will explore the effects of emigration on family structures, social cohesion, and the transmission of cultural values and traditions. It will also examine the phenomenon of transnationalism, where individuals maintain strong ties to their home country while living abroad, and the impact of such connections on identity formation and social integration. The survey was carried out in Moscow during October 2010 - March 2011 among labor migrants who are citizens of Uzbekistan. Moscow was chosen as a place for the survey based on the fact that biggest share of labor migrants come to Russia and Moscow attracts a bulk of the total migrants thanks to wider possibilities of employment in different sectors of the economy, including: construction, communal services, public catering, transportation and others. The survey was carried out in the form of interviews with the help of questionnaires among 150 randomly selected members of the target group, i.e. migrant workers who are Uzbekistan citizens. Before the survey it was important to determine the approximate share of interviewees according to their employment sectors and their gender division. According to different experts’ opinions communal services and construction are the main sectors where labor migrants from Uzbekistan are engaged in Moscow city. However, it was difficult to decide on precise shares. Based on our estimations (using several experts’ opinions and the numbers provided in different analytical materials) it was decided to have about one fifth of our interviewees from construction sector and about quarter of interviewees from communal services sector. The rest of our so called “sectoral quotas” for interviewers was distributed among other sectors like retail trade, public catering, transportation and others, according to their estimated importance for employment of labor migrants from Uzbekistan. It was easier to decide on gender structure of the interviewees as both experts and our data confirms the share of women in total 20 number of labor migrants to be about 15 percent 1 . The survey was carried out directly in the work places of labor migrants or in the places where they live. The process was carried in a friendly atmosphere, taking into consideration the sensitivity level of each single question and questionnaires were filled directly by interviewer based on answers from the respondents during the interviews. This provided high quality of the results and correctness of the answers inserted in the questionnaires. The respondents in this age group (16-25) are the young people with secondary or secondary-special education, who just finished high school, college or returned from obligatory military service and mainly want to gather money for their own wedding or further education. This type of labor migrant fall under the category of ”grooms” – this is how some migration experts in Russia call them. In contrast, the middle age people in the age groups of 36-40 years, 41-45 years and 46-50 years make up, on average, 8.7 percent of the total pool of respondents. These migrant workers mostly have secondary or higher education and are the main breadwinners of a family and want to earn money for daily consumption of the family members, to build or reconstruct their house, to organize the weddings of their children and others. 87.3 percent of the migrant workers who took part in the survey indicated that they have either secondary (10-11 classes) or secondary-special education. In contrast, only 11.3 percent of the respondents indicated possession of higher education (Already this fact shows that biggest part of these migrant workers potentially cannot aspire to high-skilled jobs and this makes them seek employment mostly in 3D job sectors. Besides this, only 14 percent of the respondents confirmed that they are fluent in Russian, while 23 percent of the respondents indicated possession of very little Russian. At the same 37 percent and 45 percent of the respondents said that they can read and write in Russian very little. This fact again underlines less competitiveness of these migrant workers in 1 Natalya M., Morozova A., Ekaterina K., Rudakova A., Elena S. Lukashenko. Emographic and economic peculiarities of migration from Tajikistan and Uzbekistan to Russia // International Scientific Forum «National Interest, National Identity and National Security», Published by European Publisher, 2021 . P-645. 21 Russia’s high-skilled job market and also puts them in vulnerable position in employment relations 1 . The breakdown of the respondents according to their family status shows that more than half of the migrant workers or 58 percent are married people who are responsible for the wellbeing of their families, while divorced people make up only 6 percent of the respondents which is, in fact, a suggesting indicator that divorces are not welcomed in Uzbek society so far. The young people who are still single and probably working to earn for creating a financial basis for their further family life make up 36 percent. Ethnic structure of respondents confirms that the majority of working migrants from Uzbekistan in Russia are Uzbeks, while others like Tatars, Tajiks, Kyrgyzs and Kazakhs make up a small share. In our pool, Uzbeks make up 88.7 percent and the other’s 11.3 percent, among which Tajiks have the biggest share, i.e. 8 percent. A very interesting result is derived from the analysis of the gender structure of respondents, where female migrant workers have a 15 percent share. According to most experts, the share of women in total out labor migration from Uzbekistan, like in neighboring Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan, has been steadily increasing in recent years. The phenomenon is explained by the impact of different push and pull factors like limited employment opportunities for women and lower wages in the origin country, as well as wider employment chances and higher wages in destination countries. For example, the latest research by UNIFEM states that, “… low wages in Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan put great pressure on families, as it is very difficult to live on the earnings of a sole male breadwinner. In order to survive, families have to rely on dual incomes and working women become important contributors to their family budget. However, the sectors in which women were traditionally employed in the region, such as textile manufacturing, clothes manufacturing and others have considerably reduced their workforce due to the economic crisis….” (UNIFEM 2009). 1 Giorgi Khishtovani., Maya Komakhidze. Reviewing Migration and Development The role of local authorities in Central Asia // CAREC Institute. Visiting Fellow Program 2020, Migration in Central Asia, P-16 . 22 During the survey it was very important to find out if the working migrants are the main earners for their families or if there are some other members in their families who have monthly income, as this provides an idea about what would be the economic situation of the family without a member working abroad. Analysis of the results shows that 36 percent of these migrants have one more family member either working in Uzbekistan or abroad, which means that the financial burden of their family is shared with someone else. In case the migrant loses their job, becomes ill or injured, or dies the family will not be left without any sources of income and fall under poverty line. Besides this, in the families of 19.3 percent and 14 percent of the migrants there are 2 and 3 people working and generating a monthly income. Analysis of the age structure and migration purposes of the migrants in this category shows that these people are mostly young single or middle age married people who want to collect money for their wedding, purchase of a car and for house construction. At the same time, 2 percent of the respondents indicated that in their families there are additional 5 or 6 persons who have monthly income besides them. In fact, these respondents are young people who come from families with 10 or more people. Unfortunately, 22.7 percent of the working migrants declared to be the only source of income for their families in Uzbekistan, which shows the highly vulnerable position of their families in front of any unexpected situation. A very interesting fact is that 38.7 percent of the respondents declared that they do not support anyone with the money they earn in Russia, i.e. these are the young single people who are collecting money for their weeding or start-up capital for their future life in Uzbekistan, or middle age people who need money for construction, purchase of car, etc. Identification of the main pull and push factors which stimulate people in Uzbekistan to go abroad was one of the main goals of this survey, and analysis of the answers by respondents provides us with a very interesting picture. Among the multiple choices provided in the questionnaire - “gathering money for wedding” was chosen by 59 percent of the working migrants. “To gather money for purchase of car” - was indicated as one of the decision making factors by 51 percent of 23 respondents, while gathering money to purchase or construct a house (apartment) was indicated by 45 percent of them. Our survey confirmed that social networks and social ties are main factors in how migrants’ find a job in the Russian Federation. Some very interesting facts were derived from the analysis of the answers for question regarding the activity in which the labor migrants were engaged before their “migrant career”. 59 percent of current migrant laborers had had a particular job in Uzbekistan, i.e. had been employed before they decided to go abroad in search of job. About one third of them declared that they didn’t have an official employed position while they decided to try their luck abroad. Only 3 percent and one percent of the respondents decided to go work outside Uzbekistan right after finishing college and obligatory military service respectively. As it is a widely spread belief that in most migrant receiving countries migrant workers steal jobs of local people, in recent years, in Russia anti-migrant moods have been fueled with this belief as well. In fact, for some people in government and political parties, this is a very good argument against why a lot of people in Russia are unemployed while millions of foreigners are working there and sending home billions of dollars each year. Therefore we tried to shed light on this issue during our survey. To our question “if there were other candidates from local people for the job which was taken by migrant workers?” – 54 percent of the respondents replied that there weren’t any candidates for their jobs from local people, as they do not want to do the work which is done by migrant workers. 36 percent of them indicated that they do not know if there were any other candidates from local people or not. However, 10 percent of the respondents confirmed that there were other local people who would have liked to have the same jobs. “If there were other candidates for your work place from local people, why did the employer hire you” – this was our next question to the respondents who confirmed that there were other local candidates and to the ones who weren’t sure if there were any other candidates or not. Majority of them, i.e. 32 percent replied that they are preferred by employers as it is much cheaper to hire them. This is true 24 as the majority of irregular migrant workers from Uzbekistan and other Central Asian countries work in the territory of the Russian Federation without work permits, which makes them agree to work for the pay which is significantly less than it must be for a local worker or the regular migrant with a work permit. Therefore a great share of employers (especially representatives of the private sector) is eager to hire irregular migrant workers, which can be paid much less and can be fired anytime as they do not have any rights because of their irregular status. In fact, this practice is mainly possible due to high corruption rates among local officials, police and other authorities in the field of migration. 23 percent of the respondents also claimed that they were more completive as they do not drink alcohol and obey all rules set by the employer. In fact, alcoholism and drunkenness at work places are among the main social problems of modern Russia. Besides this, “high levels of alcohol consumption and violent crime are major public health concerns in the Russian Federation. Therefore employers try to hire so called “gastarbeiters” from Central Asia most of whom do not drink alcohol at all, and come to work sober. This is very important for the employers functioning in the public transport sector like private taxi companies Surprisingly, the result of this question was that five percent of the respondents were sure that they were hired as they are more qualified for the job they have in comparison to local candidates. However 30 percent of the respondents were not sure why the employer gave preference to them over local candidates. 32 percent of the small and medium businesses (which took part in the survey) stated that the locals would work in the same jobs which are currently occupied by migrant workers if the salaries were higher. At the same time 28 percent of the small businesses and 15 percent of medium businesses consider that Russian workers could get the same jobs if they would not drink alcohol. 25 Conclusion The socio-economic impacts of emigration from Uzbekistan are multifaceted and require a comprehensive understanding to develop effective policies and interventions. This course work has examined the patterns, drivers, and consequences of emigration, highlighting both the challenges and opportunities it presents. By addressing these issues, Uzbekistan can strive towards harnessing the potential benefits of emigration while minimizing its adverse effects, ultimately paving the way for sustainable socio-economic development. policy recommendations aimed at mitigating the negative socio-economic impacts of emigration from Uzbekistan. It will propose strategies for addressing brain drain, fostering human capital development, promoting economic diversification, and maximizing the positive effects of remittances. Additionally, it will suggest measures to strengthen social support systems, encourage diaspora engagement, and facilitate the return and reintegration of emigrants. 26 LIST OF BIBLOGRAPHY 1. A. R. Byasharova, G. Sh. Karabaeva, L. M. Ashurzoda, D. R. Tadzhieva, R. M. Latypova. Current issues of international migration in Uzbekistan // Bulletin of the Altai Academy of Economics and Law No. 5, 2023. 2. Ahunov M. , Kakhkharov J., Parpiev Z., Inna Wolfson. Socio-economic consequences of labor migration in Uzbekistan. 2015. 3. Anannya Chakraborty, Prof. SK Acharya and Chethana.K. The Push Factors of Migration: An Empirical Study // International Conference on Agriculture and Allied Sciences: The Productivity, Food Security and Ecology. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/338178046 , 2019. 4. Giorgi Khishtovani., Maya Komakhidze. Reviewing Migration and Development The role of local authorities in Central Asia // CAREC Institute. Visiting Fellow Program 2020, Migration in Central Asia, 5. Juraev A. R. Doctoral Thesis. Labor Migration from Uzbekistan: Social and Economic Impacts on Local Development. Doctoral Programme in Local Development and Global Dynamics, 2020. 6. K.A.Bondarenko . Labor Migration from Uzbekistan: a family and community promoted Big Bang // Regional Research of Russia, Vol. 11, No. 2. – Moscow .: published in Prostranstvennaya Ekonomika, 2020. 7. Natalya M., Morozova A., Ekaterina K., Rudakova A., Elena S. Lukashenko. Emographic and economic peculiarities of migration from Tajikistan and Uzbekistan to Russia // International Scientific Forum «National Interest, National Identity and National Security», Published by European Publisher, 2021 . 8. Rakhimov M., Yokubov F. Uzbekistan external migration: key trends and directions // Eurasian Research Journal, Vol. 4, No. 1, 2022. 9. William Seitz. International Migration and Household Well-Being Evidence from Uzbekistan // Policy Research Working Paper 8910, 2019. 10. www.stat.uz 27

Ministry of Higher Education Science and Innovation of the Republic of Uzbekistan, Samarkand State University named after Sharof Rashidov, Master of History degree . COURSE WORK Science : The history of migration processes in Central Asia. Topic: The Socio-economic Impacts of Emigration from Uzbekistan . Student: Suyarov Makhmudjon. Teacher: prof. Nurulla-xodjayeva Nargis. Samarkand-2023 2

Content Introduction I. Emigration methods, factors and its effects on brain drain condition 1.1 Emigration Patterns and Drivers 1.2. Brain Drain and Human Capital II. Influence of emigration at state economic growth and its societal effect 2.1. Remittances and Economic Development: 2.2. Social and Cultural Impacts. Conclusion References 3

Introduction Emigration, the act of leaving one's country to settle permanently in another, has become a significant phenomenon in Uzbekistan. Over the years, an increasing number of individuals have chosen to emigrate, seeking better economic opportunities 1 and improved living standards 2 . This course work aims to explore the socio-economic impacts of emigration from Uzbekistan, shedding light on the various factors that contribute to this trend and analyzing its consequences on both the individuals and the country as a whole. Between 2000 and 2020, more than 1 million people emigrated from Uzbekistan. The number of emigrants was 11 times higher than the number of those who immigrated to Uzbekistan. Statistics show that the number of emigrants from Uzbekistan (1,107,584 people) is 11 times higher than the number of immigrants (99,341 people). There are socio- economic consequences of migration and remittance decisions of the Uzbek households. We first draw a portrait of a typical migrant worker, paying special attention to the motives for migration and the skills that the migrants possess. We trace the portrait of the typical migrant worker to see the changes in migration profile over time. We also investigate the impact of migration and remittances on livelihoods of migrant-sending families. Our results indicate that financial constraints, especially on non-food and health expenditures, act as a push-factor for migration in Uzbekistan. 1 K.A.Bondarenko . Labor Migration from Uzbekistan: a family and community promoted Big Bang // Regional Research of Russia, Vol. 11, No. 2. – Moscow .: published in Prostranstvennaya Ekonomika, 2020. P-275. 2 Juraev A. R. Doctoral Thesis. Labor Migration from Uzbekistan: Social and Economic Impacts on Local Development. Doctoral Programme in Local Development and Global Dynamics, University of Trento School of Social Sciences, 202. p-170. 4

I. Emigration methods, factors and its effects on brain drain condition 1.1 Emigration Patterns and Drivers This section will search into the reasons behind the emigration from Uzbekistan, examining the push 1 and pull factors that influence individuals' decisions to leave their homeland. Factors such as economic disparities, political instability, lack of job prospects, and limited access to social services will be discussed. Additionally, the role of family reunification, educational opportunities, and global migration networks will be explored. After independence migration has become one of the important characteristics of social and economic development in Uzbekistan. Beginning of this process first of all was movement of non-Uzbek nationals (especially Russians, Ukrains, Belorussians, etc) from Uzbekistan for permanent residence to their and their parents’ homelands. According to official statistic data, only in 1992 the number of people who emigrated from Uzbekistan was 424086 or about 3 percent of the total population of the country in that year. At the same time, from the beginning of 1993, the number of people leaving the country permanently began declining sharply. If in 1993 the total number of people emigrated was 16 percent less than it was 1992, within five years the indicator declined more than twice and in 1997 made only 195001. During 1997-2009 emigration dynamics kept at the level of about 200 thousand persons per year. Analysis of the statistic data from different sources also show that among the people emigrating from Uzbekistan, the share of the people leaving to Russia was the biggest. According to ethnic structure of the population of Uzbekistan, Russians used to make up the biggest minority group (it is true for current situation as well) and accordingly we can suppose that among the people who left to the Russian Federation during 1990s Russian minorities were the majority of this group. 1 Anannya Chakraborty, Prof. SK Acharya and Chethana.K. The Push Factors of Migration: An Empirical Study // International Conference on Agriculture and Allied Sciences: The Productivity, Food Security and Ecology. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/338178046 , 2019. P-127. 5

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